After the enthusiastic response to last fall’s History of the Papacy, Raymond returns with a focused look at the last two centuries, a period marked by dramatic transformation both within the Church and across the world.

In the 19th century, the Papacy weathered the French Revolution, the imprisonment of popes, the rise of Ultramontanism, the industrial revolution, the spread of socialism, Bismarck’s Kulturkampf, the loss of the Papal States, and the controversy surrounding papal infallibility—all while navigating a tense relationship with the new Kingdom of Italy.

In the 20th century, the Papacy sought to clarify its position on emerging social‑justice issues and adopted a more international approach to its teaching. It was unable to prevent or redirect the course of the world wars, and large parts of Europe came under communist control. Vatican II attempted to rejuvenate the Church, though not without intense internal conflict. The Papacy’s stance on artificial birth control and its mishandling of sexual‑abuse cases caused significant grief and loss of credibility. The century closed with financial scandals and the theological debates surrounding liberation theology.